The way in which the Chinese view their past and themselves has been profoundly shaped by the Shiji. The Shiji, or Historical Records, was a monumental work consisting of 130 chapters written during the Han dynasty by Sima Qian. It presented the past from several angles: a chronological account of political events; thematic reports from key institutions; and biographies of individuals whom Qian considered important. The political narrative began with the Yellow Lord and continued through the Xia, Shang, and Zhou dynasties, to the Han dynasty and Emperor Wudi of Sima Qian's era. This is followed by chronological tables containing genealogical data and information on government positions, such as the calendar, state rituals, the construction of aqueducts, and public finances. Thirty chapters were devoted to the ruling houses of the states of the Zhou period, recounting the reigns of successive rulers. These were supplemented by seventy chapters on other important figures, including not only great officials and generals, but also people not associated with government, both famous and infamous, including: philosophers, poets, merchants, magicians and even rebels. Even non-Han people living along the borders were described in narrative accounts. The emergence of a unified empire from the Warring States of pre-Qin China, the consolidation of the ancient Han, and the relationship between the empire and surrounding ethnic groups were major themes in the Shiji. Qian's archive also offers insight into his role as a historian and his attempt to resolve a life-changing experience that he distinguished in his own life. Equally important, Sima Qian, by writing so well about so many things, had a profound impact on Chinese thinking on government, pers...... middle of paper ...... you vacillated between a essentialist reduction of their nature to those aspects that the Chinese found particularly shameful and a more favorable assessment of their intelligence and flexibility. Likewise, some Xiongnu customs, such as their preference for the young over the elderly, are described as simple reversals of Chinese customs. The description of Xiongnu political organization, for example, gives the impression of effective government rather than retrograde tyranny. In fact, his sophisticated combination of centralized control and decentralized administration seemed well suited to attract the admiration of Sima Qian's Chinese readers, many of whom were critical of the Han's heavy government bureaucracy. His descriptions of the Xiongnu highlighted the limits of the expansion of Han civilization into the steppe regions of North Asia..