Table of ContentsIntroductionDifferent Types of Brain ImagingFindings of Brain Imaging ResearchLimitations of Research on Brain Imaging and PsychopathyConclusionReferencesIntroductionPsychopathy is one of the disorders the most complex to detect in an individual. Diagnosis can begin in early childhood. We first notice that children have psychopathic traits or tendencies. These traits often overlap with conduct disorder and oppositional defiant disorder. Psychopathic traits are typically detected in early childhood, when personality begins to develop and continues into adulthood (Marsh et al., 2013). Traits classified as psychopathic include lack of empathy, grandiose feelings of self-importance, impulsivity, and antisocial behavior. Psychopathy is primarily diagnosed using an interview checklist, Psychopathy Checklist-Revised, created by Robert Hare. However, neuroimaging in relation to psychopathy is developing a solid background of research and support to offer another form of diagnosis. Brain imaging of psychopathic individuals has shown significant relationships between psychopathy and brain structure, particularly the amygdala and prefrontal cortex. White matter and gray matter concentrations, emotional and facial recognition tasks, brain surface areas, and functional impairments have also been studied using neuroimaging in the psychopathic domain. The literature on these topics is extensive and is often consistent with diagnostic theory and Hare's checklist. Say no to plagiarism. Get a tailor-made essay on “Why Violent Video Games Should Not Be Banned”? Get the original essay Different Types of Brain Imaging There are three main types of brain imaging technology. The first is an electroencephalogram (EEG) which tracks brain wave activity. EEG has been studied and used to show both attention and motor control areas in the brain, making it very useful when trying to understand how psychopaths may process certain tasks. The most common form of imaging is called magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), which uses magnetic pulses and movements to take images of structures. Studies using MRI have shown that brain structure and volume can help understand different levels of psychopathy. Originating from MRI, the latest technique is functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) which shows blood flow or activity in the brain. Functional MRI studies have linked abnormal emotional processing and decision-making to the brain's insula. Results of brain imaging research The brains of psychopathic individuals, from a visual and anatomical point of view acquired by MRI, do not appear to present any abnormalities on the surface (Pujol, Harrison, Contreras-Rodriguez, & Cardoner, 2018). Whole brain volume is generally also considered normal, except in very rare cases. However, some studies have reported that a high volume of psychopaths is observed in the prefrontal lobe and somatosensory cortex. A reduction in amygdala volume has also been reported. The amygdala plays a vital role in facilitating empathy towards another person. Impaired structure and function of the amygdala prevents an individual from associating their actions with the distress of others. Several fMRI studies have concluded that reduction in amygdala volume and activity is associated with the processing of emotional stimuli. In another study, the reduction ofAmygdala responses appear to be why psychopaths studied showed that lack of response increased the pain of others, but not their own pain. Lack of attachment and interpersonal deviance have also been found to be linked to reduced amygdala volume. A part of the brain called the insula, which is not limited to a certain function, has also been linked to psychopathy. Insula volume and trait boldness in over 30 individuals showed a positive correlation (Vieira, et al., 2015). The study found that an increase in the volume of the insula led to an increase in boldness in a person. The researchers suggested, from their imaging results, that a decrease in the volume of the insula could be the cause of anxiety in other cases. The brain's gray matter is another area of ​​concern in neuroimaging studies of psychopathy. Gray matter includes parts of the brain involved in muscle control, sensory perception, decision-making, and self-control. White matter connects areas of gray matter together. The white matter is made up of neural fibers, or axons, covered in myelin. It has been found that in youth with psychopathic tendencies, particularly boys with conduct disorders and callous and callous traits, white matter concentration is reduced compared to typically developing children (Brito et al., 2010). However, although a decrease in white matter was reported in these individuals, an increase in gray matter was also seen in contrast. Using MRI screening, one study found that most white matter abnormalities were in the anterior temporal lobe. It was also found that typically developing boys showed results showing an increase in white matter concentration as expected with age, whereas boys with psychopathic tendencies showed a decrease. Decreases in gray matter concentration are substantially consistent with findings from most brain imaging studies of psychopathic individuals, particularly in the frontal and temporal lobes. An increase in white matter concentration has been reported in various studies, such as in the corpus callosum and prefrontal area. Recent MRI reports are consistent with the idea that increased white matter is the result of significant accelerated myelination. Diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) is a rarely used neuroimaging technique that allows estimation of white matter location and orientation. Alterations in white matter tracts in the frontal lobe have been noted from DTI data (Pujol, Harrison, Contreras-Rodriguez, & Cardoner, 2018). Imaging of psychopaths found that a higher concentration of gray matter in prefrontal and cortical areas led to better emotional facial expressions. It has been noted in some studies that the patterns of white matter abnormalities in youth are not consistent, as some have shown an increase in one area but a decrease in another. Facial recognition tasks are often assessed in psychopathic individuals when measuring gray and white matter. volumes with the intention of discovering a relationship between the two using neuroimaging techniques. Voxel-based morphometry is a technique using MRI that is often used to observe this relationship. Thanks to this technique, a facial expression is often transformed and psychopathic people mustrecognize positive and negative emotions. In one particular study, psychopathic offenders showed deficits in recognizing sad, happy, and fearful emotional expressions. Psychopaths with better recognition of facial expressions were found to have higher gray matter volume in the prefrontal area. Numerous studies indicate impaired neural processing of emotional stimuli in psychopaths. However, a psychopath's brain is not necessarily completely devoid of emotions. An enhanced brain response has been reported in MRI findings for visual sensory areas, suggesting that there is a disruption in emotional flow. Functional MRI studies have highlighted the possibility of poor transmission of emotional flow from the temporal lobe to the frontal system. Psychopaths have shown reduced prefrontal cortex activation when viewing facial expressions or violence (Umbach, Berryessa, & Raine, 2015). Youth studied with psychopathic traits showed reduced amygdala responses to fearful facial recognition tasks. Recent EEG studies have suggested that there is an inverse relationship between overallocation of attentional cues and reduced resources for motor control in psychopathy. The activities of alpha particles in the brain are examined by an EEG, which is often done while the individual is asked to perform a certain motor task (Tillem, Brennan, Wu, Mayes, & Baskin-Sommers, 2018). These findings provide evidence of attention problems in psychopathic individuals. Cortical thickness and brain surface area also contributed to psychopathy. Around the age of 8 to 9 years, cortical thickness and surface area are thought to reach their developmental peak. One study reported that children with callous and callous traits, compared to typically developing children, had reduced thickness and surface area (Fairchild, et al., 2015). Increased folding of the insula was also seen compared to healthy controls. However, it was found that there is an inconsistency in fMRI measurements regarding the cortical dimensions of the insula. Reduced cortical thickness in the prefrontal cortex was noted in a population of children diagnosed with conduct disorders and psychopathic tendencies. This has led to the association of tendencies such as aggression or moral judgment that could be directly linked to cortical volume (Sarkar, et al., 2014). However, very few studies show both a reduction in cortical thickness and surface area resulting from MRI research. Cortical thickness appears to be consistent with numerous studies that have found reduced thickness or cortical “thinning” in the prefrontal cortex (Wallace, et al., 2014). These results were reported to remain consistent in smaller groups upon further fMRI screening. Brain function has been studied primarily by examining the gross anatomy of the entire brain using MRI screening. The amygdala is the main area of ​​concern according to psychologists and researchers when it comes to the brain functioning of psychopaths. In some samples, an association was found between persistent cavum septum pellucidum, a fluid-filled space in the septum, and higher psychopathy scores. Cavum was also found to be prevalent in other behavioral disorders, suggesting that this may be a generalized finding and not specific to psychopathy. Functional connectivity is the activity between brain regions sharing information betweenthey. Reduced functional connectivity has been reported in the frontal cortex from MRI data on psychopathic individuals. Consistent research findings on impaired function of the amygdala and frontal cortex allow most researchers to assume that psychopaths have a dysfunctional emotional-limbic system. Neuroimaging studies have revealed that the amygdala is responsible for a variety of emotions, not just one. One group of researchers has suggested that the source of amygdala impairment occurs early in childhood development (Glenn & Raine, 2008). Asymmetric hippocampal abnormalities have also been found in unsuccessful psychopaths. Raine et al. suggested that hippocampal dysfunction may underlie callousness and dysregulation in psychopaths. Striatal alterations have also been reported in psychopaths, which are thought to be linked to dysfunction in reward processing and decision-making. The insula has been studied to reveal increased volume when examining boldness and has previously been implicated in defensive networks. Insula connectivity during threatened situations depends on anxiety. Limitations of Brain Imaging and Psychopathy Research Although neuroimaging can contribute much to research on psychopathy, it can only take us so far in understanding the disorder. Voxel-based morphometry (VBM) has revealed information regarding the structure of cortical areas, but VBM cannot reveal the nature of these facts. For example, it limits the explanation of why changes in volume or structure occur. Most studies of psychopathic children do not include differences based on gender. This is mainly due to the already small number of psychopathic people studied. It's hard enough to find that certain ages and ethnicities account for gender differences. This goes hand in hand with another common limitation of neuroimaging research, namely small sample size. Most studies mentioned in this review involve between 15 and 40 individuals for a sample size. Although it allows for in-depth examination of the individuals studied, it does not guarantee reliability. Larger sample sizes could reveal more relationships between brain and behavioral functions that smaller samples do not reveal. Regarding MRI, limitations include the type of MRI machine. Different types of machines can give different results in terms of volume and structure. Another limitation regarding MRIs is the type of head coils used. Different head coils are used depending on the individual's head size. It was also suggested in one study that limitations arise from which MRI site the individual goes to to undergo screening. Site staff could potentially influence participants in one way or another. Keep in mind: this is just a sample. Get a personalized article from our expert writers now. Get a Custom Essay Conclusion It is evident that neuroimaging brings a lot of knowledge to the field of psychology. The numerous brain imaging techniques allow the research and analysis of almost all brain functions. This allows us to understand how the brain works during different emotions and tasks. Brain imaging has revealed that structures in the amygdala and prefrontal cortex are linked to psychopathy; without the use of MRI, this information may not be as reliable and valid as it is today.1.